What movement emerged as a reaction against liberal theology and modern scientific thought?

Fundamentalism emerged as a reaction against the liberal theology and modern scientific thought that characterized the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This movement arose among conservative Christians who sought to defend traditional beliefs and doctrines in response to the criticisms and reinterpretations introduced by liberal theology, which often sought to reconcile religious faith with modern science and rationalism.

Fundamentalism emphasizes a literal interpretation of sacred texts and adherence to core doctrines, asserting the divine inspiration of scripture and rejecting the idea that understanding of faith should evolve alongside scientific advancements. This reaction can be understood as a way for believers to maintain certainty in their faith amidst the uncertainties posed by scientific discoveries and modernist thought that questioned traditional religious beliefs.

The other choices represent different movements or concepts. Liberalism generally seeks to adapt religious beliefs to fit modern values and understandings, which fundamentally opposes the strict adherence of fundamentalism. Exclusivism pertains to the belief that only one religion or belief system holds the ultimate truth, while pantheism expresses the belief that the divine pervades all aspects of the universe. These concepts do not encapsulate the specific reaction against liberal theology and modern science in the same manner that fundamentalism does.